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Helfman, Collette, Facey and Bowen, 2009, The Diversity of Fishes: Biology, Evolution, and Ecology pp. 84–87. One well-studied example of fishery collapse is the Pacific sardine Sadinops sagax caerulues fishery off the California coast. From a 1937 peak of 790,000 long tons (800,000t) the catch steadily declined to only 24,000 long tons (24,000t) in 1968, after which the fishery was no longer economically viable. [93] In terms of spermatogonia distribution, the structure of teleost testes have two types: in the most common, spermatogonia occur all along the seminiferous tubules, while in Atherinomorpha, they are confined to the distal portion of these structures. Fish can present cystic or semi-cystic spermatogenesis [ definition needed] in relation to the release phase of germ cells in cysts to the lumen of the seminiferous tubules. [50] Ovaries [ edit ] The liver is a large vital organ present in all fish. It has a wide range of functions, including detoxification, protein synthesis, and production of biochemicals necessary for digestion. It is very susceptible to contamination by organic and inorganic compounds because they can accumulate over time and cause potentially life-threatening conditions. Because of the liver's capacity for detoxification and storage of harmful components, it is often used as an environmental biomarker. [40] Heart [ edit ] Blood flow through the heart: sinus venosus, atrium, ventricle, and outflow tract Cardiovascular cycle in a fish In terms of spermatogonia distribution, the structure of teleosts testes has two types: in the most common, spermatogonia occur all along the seminiferous tubules, while in atherinomorph fish they are confined to the distal portion of these structures. Fish can present cystic or semi-cystic spermatogenesis in relation to the release phase of germ cells in cysts to the seminiferous tubules lumen. [62]

Immune organs vary by type of fish. [70] In the jawless fish (lampreys and hagfish), true lymphoid organs are absent. These fish rely on regions of lymphoid tissue within other organs to produce immune cells. For example, erythrocytes, macrophages and plasma cells are produced in the anterior kidney (or pronephros) and some areas of the gut (where granulocytes mature). They resemble primitive bone marrow in hagfish.Table 1: Numbers of threatened species by major groups of organisms (1996–2004)". iucnredlist.org. Archived from the original on 30 June 2006 . Retrieved 18 January 2006. Fine, M.L.; Waybright, T.D. (15 October 2015). "Grunt variation in the oyster toadfish Opsanus tau:effect of size and sex". PeerJ. 3 (1330): e1330. doi: 10.7717/peerj.1330. PMC 4662586. PMID 26623178. Colson, D.J.; Patek, S.N.; Brainerd, E.L.; Lewis, S.M. (February 1998). "Sound production during feeding in Hippocampus seahorses (Syngnathidae)". Environmental Biology of Fishes. 51 (2): 221–229. doi: 10.1023/A:1007434714122. S2CID 207648816. Connecting the forebrain to the midbrain is the diencephalon (in the diagram, this structure is below the optic lobes and consequently not visible). The diencephalon performs functions associated with hormones and homeostasis. [41] The pineal body lies just above the diencephalon. This structure detects light, maintains circadian rhythms, and controls color changes. [41] Nelson, Joseph S.; Paetz, Martin Joseph (1992). The Fishes of Alberta (PDF). University of Alberta. p.400. ISBN 978-0-88864-236-3. Archived from the original (PDF) on 7 April 2014.

Band, Arnold J. (2003). Studies in Modern Jewish Literature. JPS Scholar of Distinction Series. Philadelphia, Pennsylvania: The Jewish Publication Society. pp.106–107. ISBN 978-0-8276-0762-0. Archived from the original on 17 March 2023 . Retrieved 12 December 2020. a b c d Nelson, Joseph, S. (2016). Fishes of the World. John Wiley & Sons, Inc. ISBN 978-1-118-34233-6. {{ cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list ( link)

Fish are an important resource for humans worldwide, especially as food. Commercial and subsistence fishers hunt fish in wild fisheries or farm them in ponds or in cages in the ocean (in aquaculture). They are also caught by recreational fishers, kept as pets, raised by fishkeepers, and exhibited in public aquaria. Fish have had a role in culture through the ages, serving as deities, religious symbols, and as the subjects of art, books and movies. Homocercal: vertebrae extend a very short distance into the upper lobe of the tail; tail still appears superficially symmetric. Most fish have a homocercal tail, but it can be expressed in a variety of shapes. The tail fin can be rounded at the end, truncated (almost vertical edge, as in salmon), forked (ending in two prongs), emarginate (with a slight inward curve), or continuous (dorsal, caudal, and anal fins attached, as in eels). Devlin, Robert H.; Nagahama, Yoshitaka (21 June 2002). "Sex determination and sex differentiation in fish: an overview of genetic, physiological, and environmental influences". Aquaculture. Sex determination and sex differentation in fish. 208 (3): 191–364. doi: 10.1016/S0044-8486(02)00057-1. ISSN 0044-8486. Romer, Alfred Sherwood; Parsons, Thomas S. (1977). The Vertebrate Body. Philadelphia, PA: Holt-Saunders International. pp.345–349. ISBN 978-0-03-910284-5. Saltwater fish tend to lose water because of osmosis. Their kidneys return water to the body. The reverse happens in freshwater fish: they tend to gain water osmotically. Their kidneys produce dilute urine for excretion. Some fish have specially adapted kidneys that vary in function, allowing them to move from freshwater to saltwater.